In these databases, hydraulic fracturing is used as a subject heading and some of the records viewed during keyword searches for fracking show that hydraulic fracturing was included in the list of subject terms found for the record.
The reverse was not true for items found using hydraulic fracturing as a keyword search. The majority of the databases use the term hydraulic fracturing as a subject heading. An inverted version of the term is used for indexing in SciFinder Scholar, and it sometimes appears in the author-supplied keywords field in databases maintained by Thomson Reuters.
Fracking as a subject term did pull up one related result in PapersFirst and 37 related results in WorldCat, indicating that some of the general databases have started adding the term in the subject field. Out of the 18 databases searched, eight had controlled vocabulary or made use of a subject thesaurus. Of these eight, five used subject terms and three used thesauri. Three of the eight did not have subject or thesaurus terms for fracking or hydraulic fracturing.
Table 4 lists the database and other terms available for searching on hydraulic fracturing. Though SciFinder Scholar allows the input of CA concept headings, it does not have a searchable thesaurus or subject headings. It does have a Categorize function. The Categorize function will, for any search set of 15, results or less, retrieve and collate the category and index terms for each record in the results set.
The user can then select the Category heading, Category, and Index terms of interest in that category to quickly narrow down the search results. Fracking fluids, Fracturing oil wells , Fracturing fluids, Hydraulic fracturing, Oil wells--hydraulic fracturing, Oil wells--fracturing, Oil wells--fracturing fluids, Proppants, Water wells--hydraulic fracturing.
The databases to use will depend on the needs of the user. Those looking for more scholarly articles will probably find the scientific databases to be more useful, while someone looking for more popular articles or some background information will probably want to start with the general databases. Compendex and GeoRef are the best databases to use when looking for scientific or technical information on hydraulic fracturing based on number of hits alone.
Academic Search Premier may be a useful starting point for the researcher who is not sure which aspect of the topic to research. Business Source Complete is ideal for users looking for information on the companies that perform hydraulic fracturing. GreenFILE, even though it does not produce a large number of hits, would be an appropriate place to look for aspects of hydraulic fracturing that affect the environment.
Legal information on regulations and court cases can be obtained from LexisNexis Academic. SciFinder Scholar or any other chemistry-related database would be good to use when learning about the chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing fluid and why they were chosen. The term fracking is not the best term to use when looking for scholarly research; hydraulic fracturing is the preferred subject term to use when searching in most databases.
Knowing this will be helpful to students and members of the general public interested in learning more about the process. The extensive use of fracking in the US, where it has revolutionised the energy industry, has prompted environmental concerns.
Fracking uses huge amounts of water, which must be transported to the site at significant environmental cost. As well as earth tremor concerns, environmentalists say potentially carcinogenic chemicals may escape during drilling and contaminate groundwater around the fracking site.
The industry suggests pollution incidents are the results of bad practice, rather than an inherently risky technique. Campaigners say fracking is distracting energy firms and governments from investing in renewable sources of energy, and encouraging continued reliance on fossil fuels. The government believes shale gas has the potential to provide the UK with "greater energy security, growth and jobs" and says it "could be an important part of our transition to a low carbon future".
Prime Minister Theresa May told the Yorkshire Post shale gas extraction was important "because of the impact it can have on our future energy security". Her predecessor David Cameron was also a supporter of fracking, saying it could support tens of thousands of UK jobs and reduce bills.
Downing Street has said shale gas planning applications in England are to be fast-tracked to crack down on councils that delay decisions. However, Labour has called for fracking to be "banned, not promoted" , describing shale gas as a "dirty fossil fuel".
In January , MPs overwhelmingly rejected an outright ban on fracking but did pledge an "outright ban" on fracking in national parks. Critics, including Labour and Greenpeace, accused the government of a U-turn. Ex-Labour MP is first fracking commissioner. Fracking given go-ahead by government. Fracking 'likely cause' of quakes. This video can not be played To play this video you need to enable JavaScript in your browser. What is fracking? Is fracking taking place in the UK?
Has test drilling been completed? What are the advantages of fracking? Well Construction Oil and gas wells must be properly constructed to withstand intense temperature and pressure fluctuations. Otherwise, a well may be damaged, possibly allowing oil, gas, and fracking fluid to leak. For example, the EPA faulted burst casings—the steel pipes used to construct wells—in the leakage of fracking fluids into wells used to monitor water quality in Killdeer, North Dakota, in Another study, of cases of suspected drinking water contamination in Pennsylvania and Texas, pointed to faulty well construction as the likely reason behind some cases of methane pollution.
When a fracture extends farther than intended, it can link up with a naturally occurring fault, other natural or man-made fractures, or other wells and then carry fluids to other geological formations, including, potentially, drinking water supplies.
Equally concerning, according to the EPA , is the lack of data on how close induced fractures are to underground aquifers. This meant that in its assessment, the agency was often unable to determine with certainty whether fractures reached underground drinking water resources. While most fracked rock formations are separated from aquifers by thousands of feet, in some cases hydraulic fracturing occurs within a drinking water resource. For example, in the Pavillion gas field in the Wind River Basin of Wyoming the same formation that contains natural gas also provides drinking water for the nearby the town of Pavillion.
While drinking water is generally shallower than the gas, there are no geologic barriers separating the two. Some private wells that provide drinking water have been contaminated with methane and other chemicals that may have escaped from the surface pits used to store wastewater or from improperly constructed production wells—although determining the exact source of the contamination is challenging.
Wastewater Mismanagement Every year, the oil and gas industry generates billions of gallons of wastewater , a potentially hazardous mixture of flowback used fracking fluid , produced water naturally occurring water that is released with the oil and gas , and any number of other naturally occurring contaminants ranging from heavy metals, salts, and toxic hydrocarbons like benzene to radioactive materials such as uranium.
This wastewater can enter and contaminate the environment in myriad ways : when transported in , for example, a broken North Dakota pipeline carrying produced water spilled about three million gallons of contaminants into a nearby creek , when stored open pits that hold wastewater aboveground can spill, leak, and emit air pollution , or when treated wastewater treatment facilities unable to properly handle pollutants found in fracking waste can release contaminants into surface waters.
Even the recycling of wastewater poses a threat as it generates concentrated waste products, including a by-product called TENORM technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive material , which must then be properly managed. Recycled wastewater must also be appropriately treated for its intended end use, which can be challenging when companies do not fully disclose all the chemical contents.
Air pollution from oil and natural gas production, including fracking activities, is a serious problem that threatens the health of nearby communities. Flaring a controlled burn used for testing, safety, and waste-management purposes , venting the direct release of gas into the atmosphere , leaking, combustion, and release of contaminants throughout the production, processing, transmission, and distribution of oil and natural gas are significant sources of air pollution.
Natural gas is made up mostly of methane , a potent greenhouse gas that traps more than 80 times as much heat as carbon dioxide. The oil and gas sector is the largest domestic industrial source of methane pollution. When gas is flared, vented, or accidentally leaked, it accelerates the costly health impacts of climate change.
Oil and gas operations, such as hydraulic fracturing, also release numerous toxic air contaminants: benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene; fine particulate matter PM2. In rural northeastern Utah, researchers estimated that the amount of smog-forming compounds coming from oil and gas operations each year was equivalent to the emissions of million cars.
A broad range of health effects are associated with exposure to these air pollutants, including mild to severe respiratory and neurological problems, cardiovascular damage, endocrine disruption, birth defects, cancer, and premature mortality.
Meanwhile, industry workers face even greater risks from on-site exposure to toxic chemicals and other airborne materials, including silica the main component of frac sand , which can lead to lung disease and cancer when inhaled. The hydraulic fracturing process itself is likely responsible for a very small number of induced earthquakes, according to the agency.
The pressure exerted on a rock formation by the fluids injected into these disposal wells can cause faults to shift, resulting in human-induced earthquakes. The central and eastern United States averaged just 25 annual earthquakes of magnitude 3 or higher which is generally strong enough to feel between and but experienced more than 1, of these quakes in alone. Oklahoma and Ohio are among the states with dramatic upticks in quakes as a result of booming oil and gas production and the need to dispose of the accompanying waste.
Some of these man-made earthquakes have been large enough to cause property damage and injuries, but these states find themselves ill-equipped to deal with seismic activity, given how rare natural earthquakes are. A homeowner in Greenbrier, Arkansas, says a newly built addition on his house became unsafe to live in after an earthquake in February More than a dozen homeowners in central Arkansas claim the disposal of fracking wastewater triggered a swarm of more than 1, minor earthquakes in and that damaged their property.
Fracking, like other oil and gas operations, involves intense industrial development. Well pads, access roads, pipelines, and utility corridors are typically accompanied by intense, round-the-clock noise, lights, and truck traffic.
In addition to potentially polluting local water and air resources, this vast web of infrastructure can fragment forests and rural landscapes and degrade important wildlife habitat. Another study, analyzing the impact of fracking wastewater sprayed on forested land in West Virginia, found that more than half of the trees in the area had died within two years.
Since , hydraulically fractured horizontal wells have accounted for the majority of new oil and natural gas wells developed in the United States, surpassing all other drilling techniques.
Texas is the top producer of crude oil and natural gas. North Dakota ranks second for crude oil and Pennsylvania second for natural gas. The most productive U.
The fossil fuel industry has also set its sights on areas that offer much less potential output, such as in the Florida Everglades, including the Big Cypress National Preserve, despite tremendous environmental risks.
The state also serves as a cautionary tale for the many health and environmental consequences of fracking and other methods of fossil fuel extraction. Studies have found increased levels of harmful chemicals in water near fracking sites, suggesting that further monitoring is in order.
Meanwhile, a state regulation designed to protect the public from the health impacts of fossil fuel extraction may be only loosely enforced , according to a study by Dallas news station WFAA. Output is expected to continue to grow—though not everywhere. In , New York became the first state with significant natural gas reserves its southern swath sits atop the Marcellus Shale play to prohibit fracking.
However, as of , California was still the fourth-largest producer of oil in the nation due to significant ongoing conventional production, from the largely rural Central Valley to some of the densest urban drilling sites anywhere in the world in Los Angeles and surrounding municipalities. A analysis of oil and gas development in California showed that approximately 5.
When fracking does occur in California, it differs from elsewhere in the United States, as it often occurs at shallower depths and in closer proximity to drinking water sources, increasing the risk of water contamination.
Nevertheless, the Trump administration has made moves to open more than one million acres of public land in the state—much of which supplies water for agricultural and urban areas—to oil and gas drilling. This boom in production has come at a cost, however, particularly to land, air, and water resources. According to a study by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, drilling and fracking operations in the Bakken oil and gas fields alone contributed as much as 3 percent of global emissions of ethane a greenhouse gas and precursor for ozone formation.
Although fracking is typically associated with big producers like Texas, states with far more limited oil and gas reserves are affected too.
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